Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of
Required skills: Project Management
Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific project goals and objectives. It is sometimes conflated with program management, however technically a program is actually a higher level construct: a group of related and somehow interdependent projects.
A project is a temporary endeavor, having a defined beginning and end (usually constrained by date, but can be by funding or deliverables[1]), undertaken to meet unique goals and objectives[2], usually to bring about beneficial change or added value. The temporary nature of projects stands in contrast to business as usual (or operations)[3], which are repetitive, permanent or semi-permanent functional work to produce products or services. In practice, the management of these two systems is often found to be quite different, and as such requires the development of distinct technical skills and the adoption of separate management.
The primary challenge of Management/">project management is to achieve all of the project goals[4] and objectives while honoring the preconceived project constraints.[5] Typical constraints are scope, time, and budget.[1] The secondary—and more ambitious—challenge is to optimize the allocation and integration of inputs necessary to meet pre-defined objectives.
History of Management/">project management
Roman Soldiers Building a Fortress, Trajan's Column 113 ADProject management has been practiced since early civilization. Until 1900 civil engineering projects were generally managed by creative architects and engineers themselves, among those for example Vitruvius (1st century BC), Christopher Wren (1632–1723) , Thomas Telford (1757-1834) and Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806–1859) [6] It was in the 1950s that organizations started to systematically apply Management/">project management tools and techniques to complex projects.[7]
Henry Gantt (1861-1919), the father of planning and control techniques.As a discipline, Management/">Project Management developed from several fields of application including construction, engineering, and defense activity.[8] Two forefathers of Management/">project management are Henry Gantt, called the father of planning and control techniques[9], who is famous for his use of the Gantt chart as a Management/">project management tool; and Henri Fayol for his creation of the 5 management functions which form the foundation of the body of knowledge associated with project and program management.[10] Both Gantt and Fayol were students of Frederick Winslow Taylor's theories of scientific management. His work is the forerunner to modern Management/">project management tools including work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation.
The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern Management/">Project Management era. Project management became recognized as a distinct discipline arising from the management discipline.[11] In the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad hoc basis using mostly Gantt Charts, and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical project-scheduling models were developed. The "Critical Path Method" (CPM) was developed as a joint venture between DuPont Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects. And the "Program Evaluation and Review Technique" or PERT, was developed by Booz-Allen & Hamilton as part of the United States Navy's (in conjunction with the Lockheed Corporation) Polaris missile submarine program;[12] These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many private enterprises.
PERT network chart for a seven-month project with five milestonesAt the same time, as project-scheduling models were being developed, technology for project cost estimating, cost management, and engineering economics was evolving, with pioneering work by Hans Lang and others. In 1956, the American Association of Cost Engineers (now AACE International; the Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering) was formed by early practitioners of Management/">project management and the associated specialties of planning and scheduling, cost estimating, and cost/schedule control (project control). AACE continued its pioneering work and in 2006 released the first integrated process for portfolio, program and Management/">project management (Total Cost Management Framework).
The International Management/">Project Management Association (IPMA) was founded in Europe in 1967,[13] as a federation of several national Management/">project management associations. IPMA maintains its federal structure today and now includes member associations on every continent except Antarctica. IPMA offers a Four Level Certification program based on the IPMA Competence Baseline (ICB).[14] The ICB covers technical competences, contextual competences, and behavioral competences.
In 1969, the Management/">Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed in the USA.[15] PMI publishes A Guide to the Management/">Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide), which describes Management/">project management practices that are common to "most projects, most of the time." PMI also offers multiple certifications.
[edit] Management/">Project management approaches
There are a number of approaches to managing project activities including agile, interactive, incremental, and phased approaches.
Regardless of the methodology employed, careful consideration must be given to the overall project objectives, timeline, and cost, as well as the roles and responsibilities of all participants and stakeholders.
[edit] The traditional approach
A traditional phased approach identifies a sequence of steps to be completed. In the "traditional approach", we can distinguish 5 components of a project (4 stages plus control) in the development of a project:
Many industries use variations on these project stages. For example, when working on a brick and mortar design and construction, projects will typically progress through stages like Pre-Planning, Conceptual Design, Schematic Design, Design Development, Construction Drawings (or Contract Documents), and Construction Administration. In software development, this approach is often known as the waterfall model[16], i.e., one series of tasks after another in linear sequence. In software development many organizations have adapted the Rational Unified Process (RUP) to fit this methodology, although RUP does not require or explicitly recommend this practice. Waterfall development works well for small, well defined projects, but often fails in larger projects of undefined and ambiguous nature. The Cone of Uncertainty explains some of this as the planning made on the initial phase of the project suffers from a high degree of uncertainty. This becomes especially true as software development is often the realization of a new or novel product. In projects where requirements have not been finalized and can change, requirements management is used to develop an accurate and complete definition of the behavior of software that can serve as the basis for software development[17]. While the terms may differ from industry to industry, the actual stages typically follow common steps to problem solving — "defining the problem, weighing options, choosing a path, implementation and evaluation."
[edit] Critical Chain Management/">Project Management
Critical Chain Management/">Project Management (CCPM) is a method of planning and managing projects that puts more emphasis on the resources (physical and human) needed in order to execute project tasks. It is an application of the Theory of Constraints (TOC) to projects. The goal is to increase the rate of throughput (or completion rates) of projects in an organization. Applying the first three of the five focusing steps of TOC, the system constraint for all projects is identified as are the resources. To exploit the constraint, tasks on the critical chain are given priority over all other activities. Finally, projects are planned and managed to ensure that the resources are ready when the critical chain tasks must start, subordinating all other resources to the critical chain.
Regardless of project type, the project plan should undergo Resource Leveling, and the longest sequence of resource-constrained tasks should be identified as the critical chain. In multi-project environments, resource leveling should be performed across projects. However, it is often enough to identify (or simply select) a single "drum" resource—a resource that acts as a constraint across projects—and stagger projects based on the availability of that single resource.
Planning and feedback loops in Extreme Programming (XP) with the time frames of the multiple loops.[edit] Extreme Management/">Project Management
In critical studies of Management/">Project Management, it has been noted that several of these fundamentally PERT-based models are not well suited for the multi-project company environment of today.[citation needed] Most of them are aimed at very large-scale, one-time, non-routine projects, and nowadays all kinds of management are expressed in terms of projects.
Using complex models for "projects" (or rather "tasks") spanning a few weeks has been proven to cause unnecessary costs and low maneuverability in several cases. Instead, Management/">project management experts try to identify different "lightweight" models, such as Agile Management/">Project Management methods including Extreme Programming for software development and Scrum techniques.
The generalization of Extreme Programming to other kinds of projects is extreme Management/">project management, which may be used in combination with the process modeling and management principles of human interaction management.
[edit] Event chain methodology
Event chain methodology is another method that complements critical path method and critical chain Management/">project management methodologies.
Event chain methodology is an uncertainty modeling and schedule network analysis technique that is focused on identifying and managing events and event chains that affect project schedules. Event chain methodology helps to mitigate the negative impact of psychological heuristics and biases, as well as to allow for easy modeling of uncertainties in the project schedules. Event chain methodology is based on the following principles.
Probabilistic moment of risk: An activity (task) in most real life processes is not a continuous uniform process. Tasks are affected by external events, which can occur at some point in the middle of the task.
Event chains: Events can cause other events, which will create event chains. These event chains can significantly affect the course of the project. Quantitative analysis is used to determine a cumulative effect of these event chains on the project schedule.
Critical events or event chains: The single events or the event chains that have the most potential to affect the projects are the “critical events” or “critical chains of events.” They can be determined by the analysis.
Project tracking with events: Even if a project is partially completed and data about the project duration, cost, and events occurred is available, it is still possible to refine information about future potential events and helps to forecast future project performance.
Event chain visualization: Events and event chains can be visualized using event chain diagrams on a Gantt chart.
[edit] PRINCE2
The PRINCE2 process modelPRINCE2 is a structured approach to Management/">project management, released in 1996 as a generic Management/">project management method.[18] It combined the original PROMPT methodology (which evolved into the PRINCE methodology) with IBM's MITP (managing the implementation of the total project) methodology. PRINCE2 provides a method for managing projects within a clearly defined framework. PRINCE2 describes procedures to coordinate people and activities in a project, how to design and supervise the project, and what to do if the project has to be adjusted if it does not develop as planned.
In the method, each process is specified with its key inputs and outputs and with specific goals and activities to be carried out. This allows for automatic control of any deviations from the plan. Divided into manageable stages, the method enables an efficient control of resources. On the basis of close monitoring, the project can be carried out in a controlled and organized way.
PRINCE2 provides a common language for all participants in the project. The various management roles and responsibilities involved in a project are fully described and are adaptable to suit the complexity of the project and skills of the organization.
[edit] Process-based management
Capability Maturity Model, predecessor of the CMMI ModelAlso furthering the concept of project control is the incorporation of process-based management. This area has been driven by the use of Maturity models such as the CMMI (Capability Maturity Model Integration) and ISO/IEC15504 (SPICE - Software Process Improvement and Capability Estimation).
Agile Management/">Project Management approaches based on the principles of human interaction management are founded on a process view of human collaboration. This contrasts sharply with the traditional approach. In the agile software development or flexible product development approach, the project is seen as a series of relatively small tasks conceived and executed as the situation demands in an adaptive manner, rather than as a completely pre-planned process.
[edit] Management/">Project Management Processes
Traditionally, Management/">project management includes a number of elements: four to five process groups, and a control system. Regardless of the methodology or terminology used, the same basic Management/">project management processes will be used.
The project development stages[19]Major process groups generally include:
Initiation
Planning or development
Production or execution
Monitoring and controlling
Closing
In project environments with a significant exploratory element (e.g., Research and development), these stages may be supplemented with decision points (go/no go decisions) at which the project's continuation is debated and decided. An example is the Stage-Gate model.
[edit] Initiation
Initiating Process Group Processes[19]The initiation processes determine the nature and scope of the project. If this stage is not performed well, it is unlikely that the project will be successful in meeting the business’ needs. The key project controls needed here are an understanding of the business environment and making sure that all necessary controls are incorporated into the project. Any deficiencies should be reported and a recommendation should be made to fix them.
The initiation stage should include a plan that encompasses the following areas:
Analyzing the business needs/requirements in measurable goals
Reviewing of the current operations
Financial analysis of the costs and benefits including a budget
Stakeholder analysis, including users, and support personnel for the project
Project charter including costs, tasks, deliverables, and schedule
[edit] Planning and design
Planning Process Group Activities[19]After the initiation stage, the project is planned to an appropriate level of detail. The main purpose is to plan time, cost and resources adequately to estimate the work needed and to effectively manage risk during project execution. As with the Initiation process group, a failure to adequately plan greatly reduces the project's chances of successfully accomplishing its goals.
Project planning generally consists of
determining how to plan (e.g. by level of detail or rolling wave);
developing the scope statement;
selecting the planning team;
identifying deliverables and creating the work breakdown structure;
identifying the activities needed to complete those deliverables and networking the activities in their logical sequence;
estimating the resource requirements for the activities;
A project is a temporary endeavor, having a defined beginning and end (usually constrained by date, but can be by funding or deliverables[1]), undertaken to meet unique goals and objectives[2], usually to bring about beneficial change or added value. The temporary nature of projects stands in contrast to business as usual (or operations)[3], which are repetitive, permanent or semi-permanent functional work to produce products or services. In practice, the management of these two systems is often found to be quite different, and as such requires the development of distinct technical skills and the adoption of separate management.
The primary challenge of Management/">project management is to achieve all of the project goals[4] and objectives while honoring the preconceived project constraints.[5] Typical constraints are scope, time, and budget.[1] The secondary—and more ambitious—challenge is to optimize the allocation and integration of inputs necessary to meet pre-defined objectives.
History of Management/">project management
Roman Soldiers Building a Fortress, Trajan's Column 113 ADProject management has been practiced since early civilization. Until 1900 civil engineering projects were generally managed by creative architects and engineers themselves, among those for example Vitruvius (1st century BC), Christopher Wren (1632–1723) , Thomas Telford (1757-1834) and Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806–1859) [6] It was in the 1950s that organizations started to systematically apply Management/">project management tools and techniques to complex projects.[7]
Henry Gantt (1861-1919), the father of planning and control techniques.As a discipline, Management/">Project Management developed from several fields of application including construction, engineering, and defense activity.[8] Two forefathers of Management/">project management are Henry Gantt, called the father of planning and control techniques[9], who is famous for his use of the Gantt chart as a Management/">project management tool; and Henri Fayol for his creation of the 5 management functions which form the foundation of the body of knowledge associated with project and program management.[10] Both Gantt and Fayol were students of Frederick Winslow Taylor's theories of scientific management. His work is the forerunner to modern Management/">project management tools including work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation.
The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern Management/">Project Management era. Project management became recognized as a distinct discipline arising from the management discipline.[11] In the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad hoc basis using mostly Gantt Charts, and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical project-scheduling models were developed. The "Critical Path Method" (CPM) was developed as a joint venture between DuPont Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects. And the "Program Evaluation and Review Technique" or PERT, was developed by Booz-Allen & Hamilton as part of the United States Navy's (in conjunction with the Lockheed Corporation) Polaris missile submarine program;[12] These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many private enterprises.
PERT network chart for a seven-month project with five milestonesAt the same time, as project-scheduling models were being developed, technology for project cost estimating, cost management, and engineering economics was evolving, with pioneering work by Hans Lang and others. In 1956, the American Association of Cost Engineers (now AACE International; the Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering) was formed by early practitioners of Management/">project management and the associated specialties of planning and scheduling, cost estimating, and cost/schedule control (project control). AACE continued its pioneering work and in 2006 released the first integrated process for portfolio, program and Management/">project management (Total Cost Management Framework).
The International Management/">Project Management Association (IPMA) was founded in Europe in 1967,[13] as a federation of several national Management/">project management associations. IPMA maintains its federal structure today and now includes member associations on every continent except Antarctica. IPMA offers a Four Level Certification program based on the IPMA Competence Baseline (ICB).[14] The ICB covers technical competences, contextual competences, and behavioral competences.
In 1969, the Management/">Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed in the USA.[15] PMI publishes A Guide to the Management/">Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide), which describes Management/">project management practices that are common to "most projects, most of the time." PMI also offers multiple certifications.
[edit] Management/">Project management approaches
There are a number of approaches to managing project activities including agile, interactive, incremental, and phased approaches.
Regardless of the methodology employed, careful consideration must be given to the overall project objectives, timeline, and cost, as well as the roles and responsibilities of all participants and stakeholders.
[edit] The traditional approach
A traditional phased approach identifies a sequence of steps to be completed. In the "traditional approach", we can distinguish 5 components of a project (4 stages plus control) in the development of a project:
Many industries use variations on these project stages. For example, when working on a brick and mortar design and construction, projects will typically progress through stages like Pre-Planning, Conceptual Design, Schematic Design, Design Development, Construction Drawings (or Contract Documents), and Construction Administration. In software development, this approach is often known as the waterfall model[16], i.e., one series of tasks after another in linear sequence. In software development many organizations have adapted the Rational Unified Process (RUP) to fit this methodology, although RUP does not require or explicitly recommend this practice. Waterfall development works well for small, well defined projects, but often fails in larger projects of undefined and ambiguous nature. The Cone of Uncertainty explains some of this as the planning made on the initial phase of the project suffers from a high degree of uncertainty. This becomes especially true as software development is often the realization of a new or novel product. In projects where requirements have not been finalized and can change, requirements management is used to develop an accurate and complete definition of the behavior of software that can serve as the basis for software development[17]. While the terms may differ from industry to industry, the actual stages typically follow common steps to problem solving — "defining the problem, weighing options, choosing a path, implementation and evaluation."
[edit] Critical Chain Management/">Project Management
Critical Chain Management/">Project Management (CCPM) is a method of planning and managing projects that puts more emphasis on the resources (physical and human) needed in order to execute project tasks. It is an application of the Theory of Constraints (TOC) to projects. The goal is to increase the rate of throughput (or completion rates) of projects in an organization. Applying the first three of the five focusing steps of TOC, the system constraint for all projects is identified as are the resources. To exploit the constraint, tasks on the critical chain are given priority over all other activities. Finally, projects are planned and managed to ensure that the resources are ready when the critical chain tasks must start, subordinating all other resources to the critical chain.
Regardless of project type, the project plan should undergo Resource Leveling, and the longest sequence of resource-constrained tasks should be identified as the critical chain. In multi-project environments, resource leveling should be performed across projects. However, it is often enough to identify (or simply select) a single "drum" resource—a resource that acts as a constraint across projects—and stagger projects based on the availability of that single resource.
Planning and feedback loops in Extreme Programming (XP) with the time frames of the multiple loops.[edit] Extreme Management/">Project Management
In critical studies of Management/">Project Management, it has been noted that several of these fundamentally PERT-based models are not well suited for the multi-project company environment of today.[citation needed] Most of them are aimed at very large-scale, one-time, non-routine projects, and nowadays all kinds of management are expressed in terms of projects.
Using complex models for "projects" (or rather "tasks") spanning a few weeks has been proven to cause unnecessary costs and low maneuverability in several cases. Instead, Management/">project management experts try to identify different "lightweight" models, such as Agile Management/">Project Management methods including Extreme Programming for software development and Scrum techniques.
The generalization of Extreme Programming to other kinds of projects is extreme Management/">project management, which may be used in combination with the process modeling and management principles of human interaction management.
[edit] Event chain methodology
Event chain methodology is another method that complements critical path method and critical chain Management/">project management methodologies.
Event chain methodology is an uncertainty modeling and schedule network analysis technique that is focused on identifying and managing events and event chains that affect project schedules. Event chain methodology helps to mitigate the negative impact of psychological heuristics and biases, as well as to allow for easy modeling of uncertainties in the project schedules. Event chain methodology is based on the following principles.
Probabilistic moment of risk: An activity (task) in most real life processes is not a continuous uniform process. Tasks are affected by external events, which can occur at some point in the middle of the task.
Event chains: Events can cause other events, which will create event chains. These event chains can significantly affect the course of the project. Quantitative analysis is used to determine a cumulative effect of these event chains on the project schedule.
Critical events or event chains: The single events or the event chains that have the most potential to affect the projects are the “critical events” or “critical chains of events.” They can be determined by the analysis.
Project tracking with events: Even if a project is partially completed and data about the project duration, cost, and events occurred is available, it is still possible to refine information about future potential events and helps to forecast future project performance.
Event chain visualization: Events and event chains can be visualized using event chain diagrams on a Gantt chart.
[edit] PRINCE2
The PRINCE2 process modelPRINCE2 is a structured approach to Management/">project management, released in 1996 as a generic Management/">project management method.[18] It combined the original PROMPT methodology (which evolved into the PRINCE methodology) with IBM's MITP (managing the implementation of the total project) methodology. PRINCE2 provides a method for managing projects within a clearly defined framework. PRINCE2 describes procedures to coordinate people and activities in a project, how to design and supervise the project, and what to do if the project has to be adjusted if it does not develop as planned.
In the method, each process is specified with its key inputs and outputs and with specific goals and activities to be carried out. This allows for automatic control of any deviations from the plan. Divided into manageable stages, the method enables an efficient control of resources. On the basis of close monitoring, the project can be carried out in a controlled and organized way.
PRINCE2 provides a common language for all participants in the project. The various management roles and responsibilities involved in a project are fully described and are adaptable to suit the complexity of the project and skills of the organization.
[edit] Process-based management
Capability Maturity Model, predecessor of the CMMI ModelAlso furthering the concept of project control is the incorporation of process-based management. This area has been driven by the use of Maturity models such as the CMMI (Capability Maturity Model Integration) and ISO/IEC15504 (SPICE - Software Process Improvement and Capability Estimation).
Agile Management/">Project Management approaches based on the principles of human interaction management are founded on a process view of human collaboration. This contrasts sharply with the traditional approach. In the agile software development or flexible product development approach, the project is seen as a series of relatively small tasks conceived and executed as the situation demands in an adaptive manner, rather than as a completely pre-planned process.
[edit] Management/">Project Management Processes
Traditionally, Management/">project management includes a number of elements: four to five process groups, and a control system. Regardless of the methodology or terminology used, the same basic Management/">project management processes will be used.
The project development stages[19]Major process groups generally include:
Initiation
Planning or development
Production or execution
Monitoring and controlling
Closing
In project environments with a significant exploratory element (e.g., Research and development), these stages may be supplemented with decision points (go/no go decisions) at which the project's continuation is debated and decided. An example is the Stage-Gate model.
[edit] Initiation
Initiating Process Group Processes[19]The initiation processes determine the nature and scope of the project. If this stage is not performed well, it is unlikely that the project will be successful in meeting the business’ needs. The key project controls needed here are an understanding of the business environment and making sure that all necessary controls are incorporated into the project. Any deficiencies should be reported and a recommendation should be made to fix them.
The initiation stage should include a plan that encompasses the following areas:
Analyzing the business needs/requirements in measurable goals
Reviewing of the current operations
Financial analysis of the costs and benefits including a budget
Stakeholder analysis, including users, and support personnel for the project
Project charter including costs, tasks, deliverables, and schedule
[edit] Planning and design
Planning Process Group Activities[19]After the initiation stage, the project is planned to an appropriate level of detail. The main purpose is to plan time, cost and resources adequately to estimate the work needed and to effectively manage risk during project execution. As with the Initiation process group, a failure to adequately plan greatly reduces the project's chances of successfully accomplishing its goals.
Project planning generally consists of
determining how to plan (e.g. by level of detail or rolling wave);
developing the scope statement;
selecting the planning team;
identifying deliverables and creating the work breakdown structure;
identifying the activities needed to complete those deliverables and networking the activities in their logical sequence;
estimating the resource requirements for the activities;
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